The Socio-Economic-Political and Religious Conditions in India from the 18th Century Onwards
Around 1800, India was in a pitiable condition. Neither the earlier Hindu governments nor the Muslim rulers who ruled from the 12th century succeeded in creating or maintaining peace. As such, India did not know peace during 1200-1800 AD. Even under the best of Mughal rulers, there was frequent fighting. There were no reform movements during that period.
Indian civilization and culture during the 18th century were at their lowest. No important book was known to be produced in any of the Indian languages. The lack of appreciation and patronage given to indigenous arts led to the disappearance of many old works of art, due to ignorance and carelessness. Some were taken away by foreigners. No creative work in any field was produced during this period. In societal life during this period, social evils perpetrated in the name of religion were rampant.
1. Political
Politically, India was in a very pitiable plight at the dawn of the 19th century. Mughals were ruling India for the last six centuries. There were frequent fights, a good deal of injustice, and constant outbreaks of barbarity. India scarcely knew peace during this period. Mughal power declined by the end of the 18th century, leaving a political vacuum. Marathas, Jars, and Sikhs emerged as new administrators. The British supremacy began with the battle of Plassey in 1757. The British had no definite policy on political matters and did not think of a settled government at this juncture.
2. Religious
The religious condition of this period was very complex. There were multiple religious ideas, and people were confused. They did not know the proper way of salvation.
- Hinduism: Seventy-five percent of Indians were Hindus. They were backward and subjugated by Muslims. Idolatry with cruel and immoral rites was seen everywhere. The spiritual matters of the community were under the control of corrupt Brahmin priests. D. R. Bali states, “Hinduism came under the complete domination of the designing and corrupt priestly class. To maintain their supremacy, the Brahmin priests were interested in keeping people ignorant and fed them with false hopes of a rewarding afterlife.” The Brahmins deceived the masses, making them believe that they were the nucleus of every religious activity.
- Islam: Muslims constituted 15% of the Indian population at that time. They were very orthodox, ignorant, and steadily deteriorating. Many were saddened by the decline of Muslim moral life and their empire. They were discontented and crushed but not as weak as Hindus. Muslims were still in government offices, and Urdu was the official language. The bulk of public education was still Islamic in character, with Persian and Urdu being studied. However, the Muslim community was on the decline.
3. Social
Besides religion, the inner life of Indian society also decayed. There were many evil practices at this time.
- Caste System and Untouchability: Rigid casteism was one of the major social evils of that time. The so-called high castes considered that they would be defiled if the shadows of the untouchables fell on them. Highways were not open to the latter. There were neither inter-dining nor inter-marriages between the high and low castes. Social ostracization and education of only the privileged few kept a vast majority of the populace as slaves. Those who produced wealth through hard labor were deprived of the fruits through cunning manipulation of religion by the Brahmins.
- Prohibition of Foreign Travel: It was considered a sin to cross the seas and to go and live in foreign countries with people who have different cultures. If anyone did go, he/she lost his/her standing in his/her caste unless he/she underwent purificatory rites upon returning to India. This discouraged people from going abroad for studies and led to isolation from the rest of the world.
- Low Status of Women: Hinduism has had a very low status for women. Manu, the greatest lawgiver of Hinduism, prescribed that a woman should be under the control of her father before marriage, under her husband in marriage, and under the control of her son in old age. Thus, a woman was allowed no freedom at any stage of life. The higher castes (except the Brahmins) believed that after the death of the husband, the wife’s chastity and faithfulness were proven only by self-immolation in the funeral pyre of the dead husband, thereby committing Sati. Such a woman was regarded as satimata. Some Hindu communities encouraged this practice, which altered inheritance patterns. Moreover, it was considered a curse to live as a widow in the traditional joint family system.
- Sati: Sati is an act of a widow entering into the funeral pyre of her dead husband voluntarily or involuntarily, most often involuntarily. Those widows who refused to jump into the funeral pyre were not allowed to re-marry, and they had to spend the rest of their lives in much sorrow and withdrawal. Gayatri Mantra is recited while the dead body is burned. Orthodox Hindus who support Sati believe that it is the simple medium to reach God, and that women who die with their husbands are exalted in heaven.
- Child Marriage: Children were married at a very early age. Once they were married, they stayed separated until they reached a certain maturity. If the husbands in such marriages died even before they came together, the girl had to live the life of a widow for the rest of her life. There were many such child widows at that time.
- Devadasi System: This Hindu custom required girls to serve in temples. The term devadasi means female servant of God. The girls were dedicated to singing and dancing before the idols. However, corrupt priests and worshippers exploited them, leading to the devadasis becoming sacred prostitutes.
- Female Infanticide: Among the high castes, dowry was the deciding factor in marriage. Many parents considered it a liability to have girl babies, leading to the cruel practice of letting girl babies die. Female infanticide was common among the economically poor.
- Human/Animal Sacrifice: There was a belief that some gods and goddesses required human sacrifices, which were considered highly meritorious. Often, children were kidnapped and slaughtered, and their blood was offered to the goddess Kali to please her and gain benefits. Despite the teachings of Gautama Buddha and Mahavira against animal sacrifice and promoting Ahimsa (Non-violence), the practice of animal sacrifice continued during this period, albeit to a lesser degree.
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