Socio-Religious Movements within Hinduism: Brahmo Samaj
Raja Ram Mohan Roy
Early Life and Education
The founder of the Brahmo Samaj, Raja Rammohan Roy, was born in 1772 in Calcutta, Bengal. He was a Brahmin whose father worked with the Muslim government in Bengal. His parents were deeply religious Hindus. At the age of 12, Roy was sent to Patna, Bihar, for higher education. Patna, at that time, was a famous seat of Muslim learning. He learned both Arabic and Persian and was much influenced by the writings of Sufis (Muslim mystics).
Roy returned home at the age of 15 and found that he was having serious differences of opinion with his father concerning idolatry. At 16, he wrote a tract against idolatry and had to pay the price by living in exile for a period. He was called home by his father, but soon, he left home and settled in Varanasi (Benares) and studied Sanskrit and some of the Hindu Scriptures. He also carried on discussions with Hindus and Jains.
In 1796, Roy began the study of English and entered the service of the English East India Company. He worked as a Revenue Officer for about 10 years. During this period, Roy got acquainted with the Serampore Missionaries. In order to understand the Bible, he studied both Hebrew and Greek and was amazed at the moral standard taught by Christ. This resulted in his writing the well-known book entitled – “The Precepts of Jesus: The Guide to Peace and Happiness.” But Roy could not accept the Trinitarian view.
For a period, Roy helped the Serampore missionaries in their translation of the New Testament into Bengali, but they could not continue for long due to differences of opinion. One of the missionaries, Rev. W. Adam joined with Roy, and they became Unitarians and opened a mission in Calcutta, with their services in English. Shortly after this, the mission had to be given up since Adam and Roy could not agree among themselves.
Roy studied very carefully the Upanishads and the Vedanta sutra. In 1819, he published both in Bengali and in English an abstract of the Vedanta sutra translations of four of the Upanishads and two pamphlets in defense of Hindu theism. His position was that the Upanishads teach pure theism.
Birth of Brahmo Samaj and Main Teachings
In 1814, Roy started an organization called Atmiya Sabha. Through this organization, he worked against the evils in Hindu society. By 1819, Atmiya Sabha ceased to exist. In 1828, Brahmo Sabha was organized; later, its name was changed to Brahmo Samaj. Roy, along with Dwarka Nath Tagore, began conducting services in a house in the vernacular (Bengali). It was a weekly meeting open to all. There was neither organization nor membership nor creed. They had congregational worship like the Christians, which was unknown in Hinduism during those days. The service was conducted on Saturday evenings. There were four parts to the service:
- There was chanting of selections from the Upanishads in Sanskrit in a room where only Brahmins entered.
- These passages should be translated into Bengali.
- A sermon in Bengali.
- Singing of theistic songs composed by Roy.
Roy maintained his early beliefs that idolatry, polytheism, and sacrifices should be avoided. Of all the Hindu Scriptures, Roy considered only the Upanishads and the Vedanta sutra as authoritative. Roy advocated the workshop of one God and the brotherhood of all men. The Samajists respected all religions and their Scriptures. All were invited to worship in the same place. During Roy’s time, there was no prayer in the worship service of the Brahmo Samaj. Roy also did not believe in the transmigration of souls, which showed the Christian and Islamic influence upon him. Ethics taught by the Samaj is taken from the teachings of Christ.
Against Social Evils
Roy began protesting against Sati from 1818 onwards by writing pamphlets and raising public opinion. He made a study of the Smriti text from Manu and other Hindu law-givers and came to the conclusion that not all law-givers prescribed this cruel rite and that those who favored this practice said that it should be voluntary. Concerning polygamy, which was widely practiced during those days by Hindus, Roy pointed out that Hindu lawgivers like Yajnvalkya taught that it was contrary to Hindu law and that it was permitted only in case of sickness.
Roy wrote two pamphlets on property rights. He quoted the Smritis and their commentaries to prove that he was not going against the best traditions of the Hindus. He pleaded for women’s right to inherit the property of their fathers and husbands. He advocated these on humanitarian grounds. He was a reformer who removed later additions from Hinduism.
Other Teachings and Works
Roy was neither a great theologian nor a philosopher. He was not essentially a religious person. He was a social and religious reformer. Roy also spoke against Christian missionaries who attacked Hinduism because they had only a negative approach to Hinduism. To oppose this trend, he started an English magazine called Brahmanical Magazine.
Roy supported the study of the English language and Western sciences. He said that India can prosper only through liberal education. In 1821, Roy founded and edited a Bengali journal called Sermvad Kaumadi for the emancipation of the press.
Roy went to England in 1831. There, he spoke about the administrative reforms needed in India. Roy believed that the British rule in India was a divine dispensation and that there was much that India could learn from the West. He advocated the settlement of international disputes through peaceful means. Roy was in England from 1831 to 1833. He went to England at the instance of the Mogul Emperor Akbar II of Delhi, who was a pensioner of the East India Company. It was he who gave Rammohan Roy the title Raja.
While Roy was busy with work, he died in Bristol on September 27, 1833. While in England, he strictly observed the caste system, which shows that he did not do anything to eradicate the evil of caste.
The Later History of the Brahmo Samaj
In 1866, Keshub Chandra Sen organized the more radical “Brahmo Samaj of India” with overtones of Christianity. He campaigned for the education of women and against child marriages. But he nonetheless arranged a marriage for his own underage daughter. The Brahmo Samaj of India split after this act of underage marriage generated controversy, and his pro-British utterances and leaning toward Christian rites generated more controversies. A third group, “Sadharan (ordinary) Brahmo Samaj”, was formed in 1878. It gradually reverted to the teaching of the Upanishads but continued the work of social reform. The movement, always an elite group without a significant popular following, lost force in the 20th century.
Critical Appreciation
Roy believed that the Upanishads taught pure theism. However, the Upanishads teach that Atman is Brahman, the one and only reality. So, the Upanishads emphasize monism rather than theism. Roy held on to his belief that the Upanishads taught pure theism, so he was much too rigid and not flexible in his beliefs.
Roy appreciated the teachings of Christ and was much influenced by Christianity. However, he could not accept the core belief of Christianity, i.e., the doctrine of the Trinity. Therefore, he rejected the divinity of Jesus. Roy also rejected the transmigration of souls, even though it is taught in the Upanishads, which he believed to be authoritative. This shows the influence of Islam and Christianity upon him. However, he was not being consistent with his acceptance of the authority of the Upanishads.
Roy stood for a universal religion, and the Brahmo Samaj welcomed all to worship. However, the chanting of selected passages from the Upanishads was done in Sanskrit, which was known to only a few. Moreover, this was done in a room where only Brahmins could enter. Hence, the worship was rather exclusive instead of inclusive.
Roy fought against social evils like Sati and polygamy and for women’s rights. However, he did not fully reject these social evils and believed them to be permissible on certain grounds. While in England, he strictly followed the caste system. These show that he did nothing to eradicate the evil of the caste system, and in fact, it is clear that he wholly accepted it.
In spite of all these shortcomings, Roy was a great statesman, a great patriot, a champion of freedom, and a lover of humanity. He pleaded for social and religious reform and sought to reform Hinduism, rid it of all later additions, and return it to the fundamentals.
Hence, as Rabindranath Tagore called, he may be truly said to have inaugurated the modern age in India. So, he is rightly called the father of the Indian Renaissance. By removing social and religious evils in India, Roy prepared Indian people for political consciousness. Therefore, he is called the Father of Indian nationalism.
The Brahmo Samaj, in general, may be criticized for borrowing Western forms of worship. A question can be asked: Why should Indian forms of worship be considered inferior? However, in the context of its birth, it was necessary to disassociate it from Hinduism. At the same time, the Brahmo Samaj may be applauded for denouncing idolatry, which is one of the weaknesses of the Hindu religion and makes others look down upon it.
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