Conceptual Clarification of Terms
i. Modern
The word ‘modem’ comes from the Latin word modo, meaning “just now” or “existing at this time.” It referred specifically to present times or to what was new. In the 19th and 20th centuries, the word was used to designate a movement in art, modernism. Modernity differs from Modernism as it refers to new modes of transport, new media, new materials, and new sources of power and energy. In the words of Weber, the transition to modernity takes place largely through increased rationalization that follows the rules as opposed to acting on impulse or at random, maintains consistency in linking our thoughts, statements, and actions, creating the logical order of premise to conclusion. Modem refers to a process that leads to the emergence of certain distinctive features or social characteristics. It carries a certain analytic and theoretical value because it is related to a conceptual model. Therefore, one cannot limit the definition simply to that phenomenon of recent origin.
Defining modem societies includes these characteristics:
- The dominance of political power and authority operating within defined territorial boundaries.
- A monetarized exchange economy based on the production and consumption of commodities, ownership of private property, and the accumulation of capital.
- The decline of the traditional social order, and the appearance of a dynamic social and sexual division of labor. In modem capitalist societies, this was characterized by new class formations, and distinctive patriarchal relations between male and female.
- The decline of the religious worldview typical of traditional societies and the rise of individualistic, rationalist, and materialistic cultures.
Under the rubric of the culture, modernity includes producing and classifying knowledge. The emergence of modern societies was marked by the birth of a new intellectual and cognitive world, which gradually emerged with the Reformation, the Renaissance, the scientific revolution of the seventeenth century, and the Enlightenment of the eighteenth century. No doubt, the construction of cultural and social identities is part and parcel of modernity. The formation of modern societies includes the construction of language, images, and symbols, defining them as communities and setting them apart, in their represented differences, from others.
ii. Renaissance
Etymologically, the term Renaissance consists of the Latin ‘re’ plus ‘nasci’ meaning ‘again’ and ‘to be born.’ Renaissance refers to “rebirth” or “revival.” During the 15th and 16th centuries A.D., the beginning of the Renaissance developed an enquiring spirit and scientific outlook among the educated people in Italy. It spread to France, Germany, England, and so on. The Renaissance marked the transition from the Middle Ages to the modern age, developing the horizon of human knowledge, which is reflected in various fields, including literature, art, architecture, and culture. In short, the Renaissance was a turning point in the history of Western civilization.
iii. Reformation
Reformation refers to the religious movement that began in Europe against the medieval religious setup in the 16th century A.D. In Germany, under the leadership of Martin Luther, the old abusive attitude, corrupt practices, and immoral ways of life of the Church and the Pope were strongly opposed. There was the renovation of the moral life of Christendom and the repudiation of the Papal claims to ecclesiastical supremacy. Thus, it can be termed as a religious and political movement. Religiously, it aimed at the moral rebirth of the people and politics in the sense that it was a rebellion against the papacy, though the movement was organized by different sections under different names. The Reformation movement is also described as a protestant movement.
Factors of Reformation: The following are the reasons that led to the rise of Reformation:
Religious Factors: Reformation began as a revival to change the system because the church was the center of corruption with numerous evil practices headed by the Pope to the priest who greatly undermined the reputation of the church and the churchmen. The clergies were more interested in politics, accumulating huge amounts of wealth, and leading worldly and luxurious lives than performing their duty diligently. The Church became the center of commercialization, trying to earn huge amounts by issuing indulgences or pardon certificates against payment. Incompetent clergies were appointed as priests who practiced indulgences. In a nutshell, the church consisted of unholy men with holy orders. The people were dissatisfied with the Pope and church as corrupt practices and illegal collection of funds by selling indulgences were part of the day. People were unhappy with the Papal interference in the state and secular affairs. Thus, they actively participated in the revolt against the church.
Responsibility of Middle Class: The middle class was comprised of artisans, merchants, lawyers, doctors, etc., who were looked down upon and disassociated by the church. This class wanted to free the church from Aristocratic control and strongly opposed the tax system from which the nobles and clergies were exempted. The rise of a strong middle class was a potent factor of reformation that protested the dominance and administration of the upper classes.
Rise of Nation State: When the church was exempted from royal taxation, it served as a serious blow to the authority of the nation-states. They disliked the flow of enormous amounts of money from the revenues of the country to the Papal treasury. These kings favored the teachings of Luther, Wycliffe, etc., to strengthen their own authority in the country. They supported the establishment of protestant churches in their countries to establish their political authority. The emergence of nation-states and new monarchies greatly contributed to the Reformation.
New Spirit of Learning and Enquiry: The Renaissance has an impact at the beginning of the Reformation. In the context where people had lost faith in religious rituals and trust in the priest/mediator, it was the new learning and critical reasoning that brought answers to the question of the sale of indulgences, non-enforcement of the code of morality among the clergy, and undue interference of Papacy in the secular affairs.
The Great Western Schism: The division in the church arose during the election of two Popes, the French Cardinal and the Italian Cardinal, instead of one. This undermined the prestige of the Pope, and people lost faith and reverence for the holy institution. The system was further complicated in 1409 when the Cardinals, at a joint sitting, elected a third Pope. This is known as the Great Western Schism.
Triangular Struggle for Supremacy: The triangular struggle for supremacy began among the emperors, the Pope, and the council of Bishops when the emperor was expected to look after the physical well-being of his subjects, the Pope was expected to look after the spiritual matter, but in reality, they interfered in each other’s affairs and did not operate within their respective spheres. Likewise, the Council of bishops asserted its right to look into the functioning of the church, which the Pope did not agree with as it limited their powers. This triangular struggle gave a setback to the prestige of the church and greatly contributed to the Reformation movement. Thus, the beginning of the Reformation was closely connected with the revival of learning, which was inspired by the spirit of inquiry. The scholars found that the teachings in the Roman church had greatly departed from the originality and purity of the Bible, which had stipped off the respect of earnest individuals.
iv. Secular
Secularism in India has evolved through the Renaissance and Reformation, impacting not just religion but also politics, education, and governance. The term “secular” here refers to a non-religious context, although these movements have influenced social, political, and economic aspects as well. Various secular movements have emerged in modern India, including Sarvodaya, Bhudan, the RSS, and political parties like the Indian National Congress, the Communist Party, and the DMK.
Hurd defines secularism as a redefined relationship between politics and religion, while Norris and Inglehart see it as the decline of religious practices and beliefs. A secular community typically lacks faith in the supernatural and emphasizes the separation of church and state, characteristic of modern secular democracies.
Secularism can mean separating religious activities from societal functions, focusing on worldly rather than ultimate concerns. This separation often limits religion’s role in public life, confining it to the private sphere. In a civil society, institutions operate independently of religious control, while religion still holds social significance. Talal Asad views the modern secular nation-state as a common ground for various religious sects, aiming to establish a political ethic free from religious influence.
In the context of modern religious and secular movements in India, secularism can be understood as the distinction between religious and non-religious values. Secularization involves the process of separating religious values from secular ones, shifting society’s foundation from religious to secular principles.
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